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Growth factors and cytokines are the main activators of the ERK pathway as a result of ligand-stimulated tyrosine kinase receptors (RTKs)

Rotow, J

Within the vascular system, oxidized low-density lipoprotein enhances superoxide generation through multiple pathways, including the induction of uncoupled endothelial NOS, activation of NADPH oxidase and xanthine oxidase enzymes, and disruption of mitochondrial electron transport chain function [139]

Saadat P, Ahmadi Ahangar A, Samaei SE et al (2018) Serum homocysteine level in Parkinsons disease and its association with duration, cardinal manifestation, and severity of disease

In fact, HTX absorption is rapid, and several factors determine HTX penetration into the CNS, including its low molecular weight, passive transport, active transport mediated by monocarboxylic acid and sodium-dependent transporters, and the lipophilicity or polarity of its metabolites [56,61] (Figure 2)