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Another pathway through which polyphenols can increase insulin sensitivity is by activating AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), an essential regulator of energy metabolism (Xie et al., 2023)

Adaptive responses of neuronal mitochondria to bioenergetic challenges: Roles in neuroplasticity and disease resistance

Moreover, microbial transplantation studies in germ-free mice with human commensals containing a functional (but not a deletion mutant) microbial cutC gene (responsible for cholineTMA transformation) (23) and genetic manipulation (both gain of function and loss of function) of host hepatic flavin monooxygenase 3 have been shown to modulate host TMAO levels, platelet responsiveness, and thrombosis potential in vivo (24)

Besides SOD and APX that directly scavenge ROS, this cycle also involves other enzymes such as MDHAR, DHAR, and GR, which act as antioxidant-regenerating enzymes that regenerate GSH and ASA from their oxidized forms (Mittler, 2002

-SMA, alpha -smooth muscle actin